Deterrence Theory and Peers: Do Close Friends Perceive Sanction Certainty in a Similar Manner?

Although deterrence theory and social learning theory have been linked on many occasions and are compatible theoretical constructs,
criminologists know very little about how the elements of deterrence operate among and between friends. The purpose of this
study is to evaluate if similarities in the certainty of sanction, a main element of deterrence, are held between close friends
in emerging adulthood. Using data from 1,077 friendship pairs, several confirmatory factor analyses are estimated that attempt
to define a friendship-level certainty of sanction construct. Results indicate that friends do not share in common any tendency
to perceive similar certainties of sanction. Not only does the certainty between friends fail to load unidimensionally, the
two friends’ individual certainty constructs are nearly completely unrelated to each other. In terms of policy implications,
peer-based programs targeting increases in sanction certainty tentatively appear to be unnecessary.