LSE
In the late 1990s, fewer than 10 percent of Europeans voted for populist parties. Today, populist parties hold more than a quarter of national parliamentary seats across the continent and participate in government in multiple countries. While these parties differ ideologically, they share a hostility toward established political elites and, often, toward European integration itself. Why has populism grown so dramatically? A large body of research points to economic disruption. Trade exposure, automation, deindustrialisation and regional decline have all been shown to fuel anti-establishment voting. But an important question remains: can national social policies shape how citizens respond politically to economic change?