Culture &Psychology, Ahead of Print.
The aim of the present article is to analyze changes in artifacts used for mathematics and for mathematics education in ancient Egypt using Vygotskian theory and cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT). Although CHAT often deemphasizes the historical evolution of artifacts, this evolution can be explained by contradictions within activity systems and between activity systems (such as schools and workplaces) and through the process of externalization. This analysis demonstrates that artifacts develop over historical and ontogenetic time, just as people and practices do. Implications for cultural psychology and for modern educational practices are discussed.