Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Social and School Adjustment: The Moderating Roles of Age and Parenting

This study examined the associations between symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and social and school
adjustment (academic performance, peer relationships, school social problems) and the moderating roles of children’s age and
maternal parenting (affection and overprotection) in these associations. The sample consisted of 2,463 students who were in
the first to ninth grade in northern Taiwan. Results from the linear mixed models demonstrated that ADHD symptoms were inversely
associated with academic performance and positively associated with social adjustment problems. Further, children’s age and
maternal parenting moderated the associations between ADHD symptoms and school and social adjustment. For example, maternal
overprotection moderated the relation between hyperactivity and negative peer relationships (i.e., difficulty forming and
maintaining friendships), such that this relation was stronger for children who experienced higher levels of overprotection
than children who did not. Moreover, children’s age moderated the association between attention problems and decreased academic
performance, such that this association was stronger for older children and adolescents than for younger children. Furthermore,
children’s age and maternal affection interacted to influence the association between attention problems and school social
problems (i.e., bullying, aggression, and peer rejection) with maternal affection acting as a buffer for older children (grades
4–6) only. These findings are discussed from a developmental psychopathology perspective.